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Hello. In this lecture, we will focus 
on the evolution of important species

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of livestock animals and animals in general.

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The lecture is part of Module 2, Conservation 
and Sustainable Use of Animal Genetic Resources.

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The creation of this presentation was supported 
by the ERASMUS+ KA2 grant as part of the ISAGREED

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project, Innovation of Content and Structure of 
Study Programs in the Field of Animal Genetic and

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Food Resources Management Using Digitization.
The first living organisms appeared on Earth

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4 billion years ago. The first photosynthesis 
occurred 3.2 billion years ago. Eukaryotes then

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appeared 2.3 billion years ago. These were still 
single-celled organisms. The first multicellular

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life forms are dated back to around 1.5 billion 
years ago. It was only about 600 million years ago

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that the first animals emerged. The presence of 
vertebrates, which gradually transitioned to land,

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such as amphibians, dates back 390 million 
years. The first forms of mammals evolved

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250 million years ago and the first 
hominids appeared 2 million years ago.

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In the bottom left, we see the oldest imprint 
of one of the first animals, a ribbed creature

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called Dickinsonia, which existed 558 million 
years ago. The oldest preserved fish imprint is

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518 million years old and it had a pair of large 
protruding eyes and small paired nasal capsules.

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The development of life on the 
planet was influenced by major

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global catastrophes - resulting in either 
cooling or warming. The most significant of

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these was the Permian-Triassic extinction event 
(which caused the extinction of 95% of life),

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marking the end of the Paleozoic era and enabling 
the development of life in the Mesozoic era,

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leading to the rise of reptiles in forms that 
eventually led to dinosaurs, mammals, and birds.

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However, the dominant group during this time 
were the dinosaurs. The global catastrophe 65

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million years ago ended the reign of dinosaurs 
and also marked the end of the Mesozoic era.

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This was the time of a great radiation of mammal 
and bird forms during the Tertiary period.

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The evolution of mammals and birds is 
associated with the evolution of reptiles

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as they share a common origin. Recently, the first 
dinosauriform reptiles (early dinosaurs) from the

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Middle Triassic period (240 million years ago) 
were discovered in present-day South America.

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The first forms of reptiles with mammal 
traits date back to the end of the Permian

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period (250 million years ago). Birds 
diverged from the dinosaur line only

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in the middle of the Triassic period 
(approximately 230 million years ago).

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The ancestors of mammals are cynodont therapsids 
(Cynodontia, Therapsida, Synapsida), reptiles that

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were one of the dominant groups of terrestrial 
vertebrates during the Triassic period. Cynodonts

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exhibited a mosaic of "old reptilian" and "new 
mammalian" characteristics to varying degrees.

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The ancestor of mammals can be traced back to 
the late Permian period among therapsid reptiles.

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During evolution, a variety of evolutionary 
lineages emerged, with some showing primitive

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mammalian characteristics. The transition from a 
reptilian to a mammalian form occurred gradually,

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with different traits appearing in a mosaic 
pattern among different species of therapsids.

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The oldest mammals appeared over 200 million years 
ago. The second adaptive radiation of mammals

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occurred at the end of the Cretaceous period 
(after the extinction of dinosaurs). This led to

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the extensive mammalian community in the Paleocene 
(65 to 55 million years ago), dominated by archaic

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primates, insectivores, ungulates, and marsupials. 
However, most of these forms became extinct.

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Every modern mammal, from 
monotremes to blue whales,

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can be traced back to a common ancestor that 
lived approximately 180 million years ago.

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Scientists used highly quality genome 
sequences from 32 living species,

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representing 23 out of 26 known orders of 
mammals, including humans and chimpanzees,

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wombats and rabbits, rodents, domestic cattle, 
rhinoceroses, bats, and pangolins. The genomes

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of chickens and Chinese alligators were also 
included in the analysis as comparative groups.

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The ancestor of mammals had 19 autosomal 
chromosomes (2n = 38) + 2 sex chromosomes. Nine

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complete chromosomes or their fragments, with gene 
order identical to that of modern bird chromosomes

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(320 million years ago - conserved synteny), 
were identified in the ancestor of mammals.

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During the Eocene (55 to 37 million years ago) 
and the Oligocene (37 to 2.5 million years ago),

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all groups of archaic mammals were 
replaced by new groups such as even-toed

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ungulates, odd-toed ungulates, and carnivores. 
During this time, some continents became isolated

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(Australia and South America), leading to 
slightly different developments in mammals.

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In Antarctica, mammals became extinct due to 
climate change. Australia became isolated first,

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resulting in the persistence of the oldest and 
most widespread types of mammals - marsupials.

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Similarly, in South America, alongside ancient 
marsupials, diverse forms of herbivores and unique

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types of ungulates also evolved. In the late 
Tertiary, further evolutionary radiation occurred,

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leading to advanced specialized mammals. This 
is the final stage of mammalian evolution in

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the Tertiary and Quaternary periods. Horses with 
three toes evolved into horses with a single hoof,

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old forms of deer disappeared, and new forms 
emerged. Even-toed ungulates reached their peak.

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Modern carnivores emerged, but overly 
specialized saber-toothed cats became extinct.

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Primitive dogs branched into wolves and foxes. The

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species diversity was much more 
extensive than it is today.

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One study using genomic time trees confirms 
the difference in the rate of evolution during

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the Cretaceous period and the Paleogene 
period, when a major diversification of

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mammals occurred mainly after the large 
extinction event 66 million years ago.

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Radiation of birds. Modern birds achieved their 
enormous diversity during an evolutionary path

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lasting over 150 million years, which began 
with their divergence from theropod dinosaurs,

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continued with the gradual and partial 
acquisition of a flight-adaptive body plan,

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and included two points of diversification: 
the first in the Mesozoic era, when the fully

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formed small feathered winged dinosaur emerged, 
and the second when surviving species gained

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the opportunity to thrive after the 
extinction event at the end of the Cretaceous.

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The evolution of ungulates, as a highly 
diverse group of herbivores, began with

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early ungulates (141-65 million years ago), which 
had small bodies, primitive teeth, and claws.

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True ungulates only appeared at the beginning 
of the Paleocene, gradually evolving alongside

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extinctions before 37-22 million years 
ago, leading to even-toed ungulates.

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Molecular analyses using SINE sequences have 
revealed specific sequences for mammals,

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even-toed ungulates, and ruminants.

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Among the economically most 
significant ruminants are cattle.

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The development of cattle began in the middle 
Oligocene (25 million years ago), with the center

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of origin being the tropics and subtropics 
of Central Asia. Direct ancestors appeared

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5-2 million years ago in Eurasia, and only in 
the Pleistocene did they reach North America

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(reaching South America with the help of 
humans). Preserved finds of bison, cattle,

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and buffalo date back to sediments from older 
interglacial periods with suitable climates.

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The genus Bos is one of the most utilized by 
humans. The domestic cattle (Bos primigenius)

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is descended from the aurochs, which is now 
extinct, and has been domesticated in two forms,

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Bos primigenius taurus and Bos primigenius 
indicus. Gaurs (Bos gaurus) exist in

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many subspecies, as well as one 
domesticated form called gayal.

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There is also one domesticated form 
of banteng (Bos banteng). In the

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high-altitude conditions of Asia, another form, 
yak (Bos mutus grunniensis), was domesticated.

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The second large group of animals successfully 
domesticated was a species from the Suidae family,

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the wild boar (Sus scrofa), which 
inhabits all of Eurasia and Africa in

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many subspecies. Other closely related 
species have not been domesticated.

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When the number of chromosomes was studied, it 
was found that the genus Sus had a predominant

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number of 38 chromosomes. In Sus scrofa, due 
to chromosomal mutations, variants of 36 and 37

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chromosomes also appear in addition to the basic 
number of 38 chromosomes, as a result of mutations

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called translocation (the fusion of the 16th and 
17th chromosome, or the 15th and 17th chromosome).

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The genus Sus originates from the islands 
of Southeast Asia (6-5.3 million years ago),

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from where it gradually spread to the 
Middle East, North Africa, and Europe.

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According to morphological and molecular 
genetic data, species of the genus Sus

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cluster into 3 evolutionary groups. Wild boar, 
Sus scrofa, belongs to one of these groups.

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The species Sus scrofa originated in 
Southeast Asia sometime 3-4 million

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years ago and spread throughout almost 
the entire Eurasia within 1 million years.

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Wild pigs were also found in the northern part 
of Sumatra, this population separated from the

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Eurasian pig about 1.5-2 million years ago. 
European and Asian wild pigs diverged about

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1 million years ago based on the description 
of very different low-frequency alleles at

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millions of genomic loci, and over a million 
loci that are fixed for alternative alleles.

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The two main domestication centers for pigs 
are the Middle East and Southeast Asia,

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similar to cattle. However, due to the 
extensive distribution of the species,

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more domestication centers 
have gradually been identified.

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The following table describes the 
times of domestication initiation

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and the main domestication areas for the 
most significant domesticated animal species.

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The oldest species to be domesticated is the

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dog, and the youngest species is the duck.

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And thank you for your attention.